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Created in January 1985 as one of the first top-level domains, .edu was originally intended for educational institutions anywhere in the world. With few exceptions, however, only those in United States registered such domains, while educational institutions in other countries usually used domain names under the appropriate country code TLD. In some countries a second-level domain is used to indicate an educational institutions (e.g. .edu.au in Australia, .ac.uk in the United Kingdom) and in others only the country code is used (e.g. in Canada and Germany).
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The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Free online encyclopedia. Edited by James Fieser, hosted by the University of Tennessee at Martin.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/
Academy
Description of the philosophical institution founded by Plato, which advocated skepticism in succeeding generations.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/academy.htm
Active Powers
The capacities of impulse and desire which lead to or determine human action, as described by 18th and 19th century Scottish common sense philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/activepo.htm
Aenesidemus
Biography of the 1st century philosopher who defended the ten tropes of skepticism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aeneside.htm
Affection
In the history of ethics, the term referred to a subset of emotions less violent and less sensuous than "passions".
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/affection.htm
Anaxagoras
Greek philosopher born about 500 BCE, responsible for giving philosophy a home at Athens and the first philosopher to introduce a spiritual principle which gives matter life and form.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaxagor.htm
Anaxarchus
4th century BCE philosopher of Abdera, from the school of Democritus.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaxarch.htm
Anaximander
Greek philosopher of Miletus, born 611 BCE who thought it unnecessary to fix upon air, water, or fire as the original and primary form of body.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximan.htm
Anaximenes
5th century BCE Greek philosopher of Miletus who regarded 'air' as the primary form of body.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximen.htm
Anselm
11th century English prelate who developed views of atonement and satisfaction which are still held by orthodox theologians.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anselm.htm
Antisthenes
Athenian philosopher and founder of the Cynic sect who was born around 440 BCE.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/antisthe.htm
Aquinas, Thomas
The life and work of the major figure in scholastic philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aquinas.htm
Aristotle
The life and work of the 4th century BCE Greek philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm
Artificial Intelligence
Describing the view that human cognitive mental states can be duplicated in computers.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/artintel.htm
Augustine
Extensive article on the life and work of the 4th century ecclesiastical author.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/augustin.htm
Carnap, Rudolf
Extensive article about his life and work, by Mauro Murzi.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/carnap.htm
Chinese Room Argument
John Searle's thought experiment is one of the best known counters to claims of artificial intelligence.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/chineser.htm
Diderot, Denis
The most prominent of the French Encyclopedists and one of the leaders of the Enlightenment.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/diderot.htm
Diogenes Laertius
3rd century biographer of ancient Greek philosophers.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/dioglaer.htm
Diogenes of Apollonia
Pupil of Anaximenes and contemporary of Anaxagoras in the 6th cn. BCE.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/diogapol.htm
Diogenes of Sinope
4th cn. BCE cynic philosopher of Sinope.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/diogsino.htm
Duties and Deontological Ethics
Deontological theories are based on moral obligation that an agent has towards another person.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/duties.htm
Eckhart, Meister
13th century Dominican mystic who was almost forgotten until Franz von Baader revived his memory in the nineteenth century.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/eckhart.htm
Eclecticism
Group of ancient philosophers who sought to reach by selection the highest degree of probability in the search for truth.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/eclectic.htm
Egoism, Psychological and Ethical
Maintains that the individual self is the motivating moral force and the end of moral action.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm
Emanation
The theory that all derived or secondary things flow from the primary.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/emanatio.htm
Empedocles
5th century BCE philosopher who combined medical study with Orphic mysticism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/empedocl.htm
Empiricism, British
18th century British philosophical movement which maintained that all knowledge comes from experience.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/emp-brit.htm
Encyclopedists
Group of French philosophers and men of letters who collaborated in the production of the famous Encyclopedie.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/encylop.htm
Epictetus
Eminent Stoic philosopher, born as a slave at Hieropolis in Phyrgia in 55 CE.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epictetu.htm
Epicurus
4th century BCE materialist, empiricist, and hedonist. One of the major philosophers of the Hellenistic period.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epicur.htm
Moral Philosophy
Introduction to ethics, with links to other articles at the IEP.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm
Euclides
4th century BCE native of Megara, and founder of the Megarian or Eristic sect.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/euclides.htm
Euthanasia
Contemporary applied ethical issue considering whether it is morally permissible for a third party to end the life of a terminally ill patient who is in intense pain.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/euthanas.htm
Evolution
Introduces evolution through the ages, from the ancient Greeks, through Leibniz and Descartes to Darwin and Spencer.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/evolutio.htm
Ferrier, James Frederick
The earliest absolute idealist in English philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/ferrier.htm
Fichte, Immanuel Hermann
Aimed to secure a philosophical basis for the personality of God.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/fichteih.htm
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
One of the major figures in German philosophy in the period between Kant and Hegel.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/fichtejg.htm
Chrysippus
Prolific stoic of Soli, and disciple of Cleanthes.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/chrysipp.htm
Cicero, Marcus Tullius
1st century BCE Roman orator and philosopher of the New Academy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/cicero.htm
Cleanthes
Stoic philosopher of Assus in Lydia, disciple of Zeno of Citium.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/cleanthe.htm
Cudworth, Ralph
17th century 'Cambridge Platonist' who fought for preservation of religious ideals, including divine illumination.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/cudwor.htm
Cumberland, Richard
17th century critic of Hobbes and the neo-Platonists.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/cumberla.htm
Damon
5th century BCE Pythagorean philosopher of Syracuse.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/damon.htm
Davidson, Donald
Introduction to one of the most significant philosophers concerned with philosophy of mind and action of the 20th/21st century.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/davidson.htm
Functionalism
Theory in the philosophy of mind which holds that mental states are functional states.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/function.htm
Freud, Sigmund
Lenghty article on the father of psychoanalysis who is generally recognised as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm
Hegelians, St. Louis
19th century group of amateur American philosophers founded and led by William Torrey Harris.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hstlouis.htm
Helvetius, Claude Adrien
One of the 18th century Encyclopedists who held the skeptical and materialistic views common to that school of philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/helvetiu.htm
Hempel, Carl Gustav
A leading member of logical positivism, the German philosopher died in 1997.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hempel.htm
Heraclitus
5th century BCE. Presocratic Greek philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/heraclit.htm
Herbert of Cherbury, Edward
17th century historian, poet (brother of George), and philosopher. Sought to determine the nature and standard of truth, and conditions of knowledge. Precursor of the philosophy of Common Sense.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/herbert.htm
Hippias
Hippias was a sophist, a contemporary of Socrates, and an enthusiast for universality.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hippias.htm
Hodgson, Shadworth
Follower of Kant, founder of the Aristotelian Society.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hodgson.htm
Humanism
Brief article on Erasmus and the Italian humanist movement.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/humanism.htm
Positivism, Logical
Schlick, Carnap, Reichenbach, and others made up the Austrian school of philosophy in the 1920s, which has been influential in analysis of scientific thought.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/logpos.htm
Husserl, Edmund
Leader of the German phenomenological movement.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/husserl.htm
Huxley, Thomas Henry
19th century zoologist and advocate of Darwinism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/huxley.htm
Identity Theory
Form of monistic materialism which maintains that mental states and brain activities are identical.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/i/identity.htm
Interventionism
Examines the nature and justifications of interfering with another polity or choices made by individuals.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/i/interven.htm
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich
18th century German philosopher, famous for effective criticism of Kant.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/j/jacobi.htm
Just War Theory
Some of those who have attempted to justify war include Aquinas, Grotius, and Pufendorf.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/j/justwar.htm
Galileo
Italian physicist and astronomer, born 1564.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/g/galileo.htm
German Idealism
The German reaction to empiricism, including related theories of Kant, Fichte, Hegel and others.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/g/germidea.htm
Gorgias
Greek sophist and rhetorician, known as "the Nihilist," born in 483 BCE.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/g/gorgias.htm
Greek Philosophy
The philosophical currents of Ancient Greek philosophy are introduced, from the Presocratic philosophers through to Proclus.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/g/greekphi.htm
Hamilton, William
19th century exponent of the Scottish common-sense philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hamilton.htm
Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard Von
19th century German philosopher who attempted to combine the idea of Hegel with the will of Schopenhauer in 'spiritual monism.'
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hartmann.htm
Hedonism
The view, first put forward by Epicurus, that our fundamental moral obligation is to maximize pleasure.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hedonism.htm
Leucippus
5th century BCE founder of atomism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/leucippu.htm
Positivism, Legal
Theory that law is manufactured according to certain social conventions.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/legalpos.htm
Menippus
Third century BCE Greek philosopher and satirist.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/menippus.htm
Mill, John Stuart
19th leader and prophet of utilitarianism, heir to the Hume-Bentham line, and influential force in modern political theory. Author of On Liberty (1859), and Utilitarianism (1863).
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm
Monism
Originally described idealists and materialists. Now the term is used for all philosophers who have a unifying theory. Those who are not monists are either dualist or pluralist.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/monism.htm
Moral Dilemmas
Situation where only two courses of action are available, each requiring a morally impermissible action.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/m-dilemm.htm
Moral Luck
Andrew Latus, St. Francis Xavier University, summarizes the discussion between Thomas Nagel and Bernard Williams on the question: Can luck ever make a moral difference?
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/moralluc.htm
Moral Skepticism
The theory, supported by J.L. Mackie in Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, that belief in objective moral principles cannot be justified.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/m-skepti.htm
Natural Law
Standards that govern human behavior objectively derived from the nature of human beings.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/natlaw.htm
Natural Theology
Used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to describe knowledge of God drawn from nature.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/nattheol.htm
Naturalistic Fallacy
Moore's theory that "goodness" is an individual property which cannot be explained in terms of anything more basic.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/nfallacy.htm
Neoplatonism
The revival of Greek philosophy in 3rd century BCE, led by Plotinus and his disciple, Porphyry. Influenced by both Pythagoras and Plato.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/n/neoplato.htm
Ockham, William of
Detailed biography of the 14th century Franciscan.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/o/ockham.htm
Origen
Father of the early Church, born around 182.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/o/origen.htm
Solipsism
The doctrine of the solipsist is that existence means my existence and that of my mental states.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/solipsis.htm
Paley, William
18th century British theologian.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/paley.htm
Parmenides
Greek philosopher and poet.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/parmenid.htm
Libraries, Ancient Greek and Roman
Describing the public libraries of Ancient Greece, and the fashion for book-collecting in Rome.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/library.htm
Locke, John
Article on the life and work of the influential philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/locke.htm
Lombard, Peter
French scholastic theologian of the 12th century, influenced by Abelard.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lombard.htm
Lotze, Rudolf Hermann
19th century German philosopher who criticised the pantheism of Hegel.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lotze.htm
Lucretius
Roman poet and advocate of Epicurean philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lucretiu.htm
Machiavelli, Nicolo
Renaissance philosopher who remains controversial for his practical solutions to problems of how to retain political authority.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/machiave.htm
Malebranche, Nicholas
17th century Cartesian philosopher. Author of The Search After Truth (1674-1675).
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/malebran.htm
Deism, English
Explores the deism of Hobbes, Locke, Tindal, and the influence of Hume.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/deismeng.htm
Plotinus
3rd century CE founder of Neo-Platonism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/plotinus.htm
Peripatetics
Brief history of the Peripatetic doctrines.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/peripati.htm
Renaissance
Brief article on the transition between middle ages and modernity.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/renaiss.htm
Roman Philosophy
Short introduction to Roman philosophy from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/romanphi.htm
Rousseau, Jean Jacques
18th century French author of the Social Contract, influential during the French Revolution.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rousseau.htm
Rule Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism when applied to a behavioral code or rule. A rule is right if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/ruleutil.htm
Shaftesbury, Earl of
Patron of John Locke
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/shaftes.htm
Shpet, Gustav
Leading proponent of Russian transcendental phenomenology.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/shpet.htm
Skepticism, Ancient Greek
A description of skepticism in Ancient Greece, led by Pyrrho.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepanci.htm
Skepticism, Contemporary
Introduction to the current discussion of skepticism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm
Skepticism, Modern
Review of the modern era in skepticism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepmod.htm
Social Contract
View that morality is based on social agreements that serve the interests of those who make the agreement.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/soc-cont.htm
Solovyov, Vladimir
19th century Russian philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/solovyov.htm
Sophists
Teachers of philosophy in Ancient Greece, including Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus and Hippias.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/sophists.htm
Spinoza, Benedict
17th century pantheist, critic of Descartes.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/spinoza.htm
Stephen, Leslie
19th century British academic.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stephen.htm
Stilpo
4th century BCE member of the Megarean school.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stilpo.htm
Poincaré, Jules Henri
19th century French philosopher of science.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/poincare.htm
Prima Facie Duties
Moral obligations which are binding only until a stronger one emerges.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/primafac.htm
Prodicus
5th century BCE sophist, possibly a mentor of Socrates
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/prodicus.htm
Protagoras
Early Greek sophist.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/protagor.htm
Pyrrho
4th century BCE founder of the Greek school of skepticism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pyrrho.htm
Pythagoras
The 6th century BCE philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pythagor.htm
Rationalism, Continental
17th century philosophical movement. Rival to British Empiricism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rat-cont.htm
Reichenbach, Hans
Leading German philosopher of science, and logical positivist.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/reichenb.htm
Stoicism
Description of the system of ethics, popular in Ancient Greece, which has physics as its foundation.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stoicism.htm
Stirling, James Hutchison
19th century British Idealist, Hegelian academic.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/stirling.htm
Theophrastus
Philosopher of the Peripatetic school, successor to Aristotle at the Lyceum.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/theophra.htm
Theosophy
Detailed article on the religious, philosophic, and scientific theory of one eternal, immutable, principle, being the root of all manifestation.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/theosoph.htm
Time
Long article about questions of time discussed throughout the history of philosophy.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/time.htm
Timon
3rd century BCE disciple of Pyrrho.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/timon.htm
Totem
A term, derived from Native American, used in philosophy to describe one of a class of objects which a community regards with respect.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/totem.htm
Tragedy
A term used in aesthetics to describe a situation where elements of pain and pleasure exist simultaneously.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/t/tragedy.htm
Vienna Circle
Organised the development of logical postivism in the 1920s. Included Carnap, Feigl, Frank, Gödel, Hahn, Kraft, Neurath, Waismann. Popper and Wittgenstein also had association with the Vienna Circle.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/viennaci.htm
Virtue Theory
View that morality is the development of or virtues.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/virtue.htm
Voluntarism
Theory that God or the ultimate nature of reality is conceived as some form of will.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/v/voluntar.htm
Warburton, William
18th century Church of England bishop, and critic of the Deists.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/warburto.htm
Wittgenstein, Ludwig
Detailed essay on the life and work of the 20th century philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/wittgens.htm
Xenophanes
Eleatic school, powerful 6th century BCE critic of polytheism.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/x/x-phanes.htm
Xenophon
Pupil of Socrates, who contributed to the record of his life.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/x/xenophon.htm
Zeno of Elea
5th century BCE Eleatic philosopher.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/z/zenoelea.htm
Sublime
Aesthetic value with the suggestion of transcendent vastness or greatness.
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/sublime.htm
Suicide
Discussion of the applied ethical issue of suicide.
http://www.utm.edu/r
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