Related articles
Edit |
Discuss Article
Grammar
Grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a language. That set of rules is also called the grammar of the language, and each language has its own distinct grammar. Grammar is part of the general study of language called linguistics.
The subfields of grammar are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
Linguists recognise a number of types of grammar.
- Prescriptive grammar -- an attempt to tell the users of the language how to use it in order to speak correctly. This is the sense in which some people state that "I didn't do nothing" is bad grammar.
- Descriptive grammar -- an attempt to describe the language as it is being used, regardless of whether it is considered correct or not. In many dialects, people say "I didn't do nothing"; a descriptive grammar of such dialects would accordingly treat that sentence as grammatical and provide rules that account for it. Likewise a descriptive grammar of formal English would provide rules accounting for "I didn't do anything."
- Teaching grammar -- a combination of prescriptive and descriptive approaches with the aim of teaching a language to children and foreigners. In teaching grammars it is often necessary to simplify in order to achieve success, as neither the prescriptive nor the descriptive approaches are logical or easy to understand in all details.
- Generative grammar -- A technical linguistic term. A generative grammar for a particular language specifies, for each string of words, whether or not that string constitutes a grammatical sentence in that language. It does not provide a set of rules for constructing or parsing sentences.
Descriptive grammar takes the approach that speakers of a language follow that language's grammar as a common convention of mutual intelligibility. Violation of the grammar makes one's speech difficult to understand (as in "barked dog me at time for long"). A majority of modern linguists accept that no person whose brain functions are not severely impaired speaks ungrammatically in this sense.
Grammars evolve through usage and human population separations. With the advent of written representations, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal grammars are codifications of usage that are developed by observation. As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a gulf between contemporary usage and that which is accepted as correct. Linguists normally consider that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes. However, prescriptions are considered in sociolinguistics as part of the explanation for why some people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context.
The formal study of grammar is an important part of education from a young age through advanced learning, though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most linguists use the term, as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.
Planned languages are more common in the modern day. Many have been designed to aid human communication (such as Esperanto or the intercultural, highly logic-compatible artificial language Lojban) or created as part of a work of Fiction (such as the Klingon language and Elvish language). Each of these artificial languages has its own grammar.
Programming languages used for the purpose of computer programming (such as Java) have grammars, but do not resemble human languages very much. These are called formal grammars. In particular, they conform precisely to a grammar generated by a pushdown automaton with arbitrarily complex commands. They usually lack questions, exclamations, simile, metaphor and other features of human languages.
It is a myth that analytic languages have simpler grammar than synthetic languages. That languages have different levels of grammatical complexity can be shown to be false by realizing the fact that changes to words are not the only kind of grammar. Chinese is very context dependent. In other words, context accomplishes the same role as declension and conjugation. (Chinese does have some inflections, and had more in the past.) Latin, which is synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to accomplish the same role that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, a sentence can be made from scattered elements. In short, Latin has a complex affixion and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.
Grammars of specific languages
Grammatical terms
Grammatical devices
Related Topics
In computer science, the syntax of each programming language is defined by a formal grammar. In theoretical computer science and mathematics, formal grammars define formal languages. The Chomsky hierarchy defines several important classes of formal grammars.
Source | Copyright
|
 |
 |
|
Webmasters: Add your website here:
Readers: Edit |
Discuss Listings
Carol Huebner
Tutoring services, via e-mail, for essays, research papers, college application essays, letters, pronuciation, grammar and vocabulary.
http://englishtutor.8m.com/
Secondary English Resources
Directory of language and literature resources for high school level students.
http://home.pacific.net.au/~greg.hub/engpage.html
Calls for Papers
Announcement of calls for papers for conference presentations, scholarly journal articles and edited anthologies in the fields surrounding English departments.
http://calls.eserver.org/
Mrs. Adams' Red Apple Site
Includes world, American, and British literature resources, as well as Advanced Placement materials for high school teachers and students.
http://www.studyguide.org/
Electronic Text Collective (ETC)
Formed to research and explore emerging how e-textualities such as e-mail, listservers, hypertext, MOOs, change the use of English, composition and other disciplines.
http://www.humanities.uci.edu/english/ETC/
Voice of America Pronunciation Guide
Sound files and pronunciation guide for more than 2,200 names of people, groups, places, and things in the news around the world.
http://ibb7.ibb.gov/pronunciations/
Silly-plurals
Mailing list for discussion of plural forms of words, and announcements of new discoveries. Archives and subscription information.
http://lists.beasts.org/mailman/listinfo/silly-plurals
High School Hub: English
Provides vocabulary, grammar, writing, poetry, and literature resources for high school students.
http://highschoolhub.org/hub/english.cfm
Promote Yourself With Better Grammar.
Information and printable practice exercises on nouns and verbs, from the book series.
http://www.bettergrammar.org/
TutorPal
Provides references to resources for HEL (history of the English language) the IPA, grammar, and homeschool materials. Private tutoring and lessons are also available.
http://www.tutorpal.com/
Why Every English Classroom Should Have a Periodic Table
Thoreau and Emerson, both transcendentalists, stressed the interrelatedness of all things.
http://www.chemistrycoach.com/whyevery.htm
The Story Tent
A resource for literacy and oracy through story in schools in the UK, Belgium and the Netherlands. Tellings use puppets, mask, mime and particpation. Support materials provided.
http://www.storytent.co.uk/
National Literacy Strategy
An index for teachers of the literacy hour Framework for Teaching being taught in primary schools in the United Kingdom.
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/7175/lit.html
ProQuest Learning: Literature
Offers description of a teaching resource supporting the study of set texts in English GCSE and A level with criticism, biography, reference, websites and discussion
http://www.proquestlearning.co.uk/literature/
Grammar Mechanics
Nonprofit organization creating software to teach English grammar online.
http://www.grammarmechanics.com/
|
